Gaucher's disease is the most prevalent lysosomal storage disorder. It is caused by a recessive genetic disorder (chromosome 1q21-q31) resulting in deficiency of glucocerebrosidase, also known as glucosylceramidase, which is a membrane-bound lysosomal enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of the glycosphingolipid glucocerebroside (glucosylceramide, GlcCer) to glucose and ceramide. Gaucher disease is caused by point mutations in the hGCD (human glucocerebrosidase) gene (GBA), which result in accumulation of GlcCer in the lysosomes of macrophages. The characteristic storage cells, called Gaucher cells, are found in liver, spleen and bone marrow. The associated clinical symptoms include severe hepatosplenomegaly, anemia, thrombocytopenia and skeletal deterioration.
The gene encoding human GCD was first sequenced in 1985 (6) The protein consists of 497 amino acids derived from a 536-mer pro-peptide. The mature hGCD contains five N-glycosylation amino acid consensus sequences (Asn-X-Ser/Thr). Four of these sites are normally glycosylated. Glycosylation of the first site is essential for the production of active protein. Both high-mannose and complex oligosaccharide chains have been identified (7). hGCD from placenta contains 7% carbohydrate, 20% of which is of the high-mannose type (8). Biochemical and site-directed mutagenesis studies have provided an initial map of regions and residues important to folding, activator interaction, and active site location (9).
Treatment of placental hGCD with neuraminidase (yielding an asialo enzyme) results in increased clearance and uptake rates by rat liver cells with a concomitant increase in hepatic enzymatic activity (Furbish et al., 1981, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 673:425-434). This glycan-modified placental hGC is currently used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of Gaucher's disease. Biochemical and site-directed mutagenesis studies have provided an initial map of regions and residues important to folding, activator interaction, and active site location [Grace et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:2283-2291 (1994)].
There are three different types of Gaucher disease, each determined by the level of hGC activity. The major cells affected by the disease are the macrophages, which are highly enlarged due to GlcCer accumulation, and are thus referred to as “Gaucher cells”.
The identification of a defect in GCD as the primary cause of Gaucher's disease led to the development of enzyme replacement therapy as a therapeutic strategy for this disorder.
De Duve first suggested that replacement of the missing lysosomal enzyme with exogenous biologically active enzyme might be a viable approach to treatment of lysosomal storage diseases [Fed Proc. 23:1045 (1964)].
Since that time, various studies have suggested that enzyme replacement therapy may be beneficial for treating various lysosomal storage diseases. The best success has been shown with individuals with type I Gaucher disease, who were treated with exogenous enzyme (β-glucocerebrosidase), prepared from placenta (Ceredase™) or, more recently, recombinantly (Cerezyme™).
Unmodified glucocerebrosidase derived from natural sources is a glycoprotein with four carbohydrate chains. This protein does not target the phagocytic cells in the body and is therefore of limited therapeutic value. In developing the current therapy for Gaucher's disease, the terminal sugars on the carbohydrate chains of glucocerebrosidase are sequentially removed by treatment with three different glycosidases. This glycosidase treatment results in a glycoprotein whose terminal sugars consist of mannose residues. Since phagocytes have mannose receptors that recognize glycoproteins and glycopeptides with oligosaccharide chains that terminate in mannose residues, the carbohydrate remodeling of glucocerebrosidase has improved the targeting of the enzyme to these cells [Furbish et al., Biochem. Biophys. Acta 673:425, (1981)].
As indicated herein, glycosylation plays a crucial role in hGCD activity, therefore deglycosylation of hGCD expressed in cell lines using either tunicamycin (Sθ9 cells) or point mutations abolishing all glycosylation sites (both Sθ9 and COS-1 cells), results in complete loss of enzymatic activity. In addition, hGCD expressed in E. coli was found to be inactive. Further research indicated the significance of the various glycosylation sites for protein activity. In addition to the role of glycosylation in the actual protein activity, the commercially produced enzyme contains glycan sequence modifications that facilitate specific drug delivery. The glycosylated proteins are remodeled following extraction to include only mannose containing glycan sequences.
The human GCD enzyme contains 4 glycosylation sites and 22 lysines. The recombinantly produced enzyme (Cerezyme™) differs from the placental enzyme (Ceredase™) in position 495 where an arginine has been substituted with a histidine. Furthermore, the oligosaccharide composition differs between the recombinant and the placental GCD as the former has more fucose and N-acetyl-glucosamine residues while the latter retains one high mannose chain. As mentioned above, both types of GCDs are treated with three different glycosidases (neuraminidase, galactosidase, and P-N acetyl-glucosaminidase) to expose terminal mannoses, which enables targeting of phagocytic cells. A pharmaceutical preparation comprising the recombinantly produced enzyme is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,549,892. It should be noted that all references mentioned are hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.
One drawback associated with existing lysosomal enzyme replacement therapy treatment is that the in vivo bioactivity of the enzyme is undesirably low, e.g. because of low uptake, reduced targeting to lysosomes of the specific cells where the substrate is accumulated, and a short functional in vivo half-life in the lysosomes.
Another major drawback of the existing GCD recombinant enzymes is their expense, which can place a heavy economic burden on health care systems. The high cost of these recombinant enzymes results from a complex purification protocol, and the relatively large amounts of the therapeutic required for existing treatments. There is therefore, an urgent need to reduce the cost of GCD so that this life saving therapy can be provided to all who require it more affordably.
Proteins for pharmaceutical use have been traditionally produced in mammalian or bacterial expression systems. In the past decade a new expression system has been developed in plants. This methodology utilizes Agrobacterium, a bacteria capable of inserting single stranded DNA molecules (T-DNA) into the plant genome. Due to the relative simplicity of introducing genes for mass production of proteins and peptides, this methodology is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative protein expression system (1).
While post translational modifications do not exist in bacterial expression systems, plant derived expression systems do facilitate these modifications known to be crucial for protein expression and activity. One of the major differences between mammalian and plant protein expression system is the variation of protein sugar side chains, caused by the differences in biosynthetic pathways. Glycosylation was shown to have a profound effect on activity, folding, stability, solubility, susceptibility to proteases, blood clearance rate and antigenic potential of proteins. Hence, any protein production in plants should take into consideration the potential ramifications of plant glycosylation.
Protein glycosylation is divided into two categories: N-linked and O-linked modifications (2). The two types differ in amino acid to which the glycan moiety is attached to—N-linked are attached to Asn residues, while O-linked are attached to Ser or Thr residues. In addition, the glycan sequences of each type bears unique distinguishing features. Of the two types, N-linked glycosylation is the more abundant, and its effect on protein function has been extensively studied. O-linked glycans, on the other hand are relatively scarce, and less information is available regarding their affect on proteins.